DEFINITION OF RELIGION
Religion comes from the Latin word 'religio' which means "to bind" Literally speaking, religion is a principle of unification and harmonization. Any principle which binds us all together in some way is religion. It is not mere belief but behaviour; not mere conviction but conduct; not mere faith but functioning. Again it is important to note yet another etymological meaning of the word 'religion which is derived from the Latin 'religare' which means together,.. count or observe or to bind. It gives the meaning of the performance of necessary action which may bind together man and supernatural power.
In religion, the whole of human being's personality is involved. And hence William James defined religion as "the feeling, acts and experience of individual man in their solitude so far as they apprehend themselves to stand to whatever they may consider the divine". Here we can find the contribution of religion to culture. Now, we shall see some more views regarding the definition and nature of religion.
Hoffoding define religion as "the conservation of value". According to Alexander, "religion is faith in deity". To Patric, "religion is the consciousness of our practical relation to an invisible spiritual order". Whitehead says that 'religion is the vision of something which stands beyond, behind, and within, the passing flux of immediate things.
W.T. Stace defines "religion as the hunger of the soul for the impossible, the unattainable, the inconceivable.
Durant Drake described religion as that which "is the matter of will, it being understood and identified with practical reason, that is to say, certain acts ought to be done or that certain attitudes ought to be adopted. According to Swami Vivekananda, "religion is not in doctrines or dogmas, not in intellectual argumentation; it is being and becoming, it is realization.
Thus religion is the art of living, through right section and how to live our daily life in harmony, within ourselves and with others and to lead a life of peace and happiness. Here we could formulate a mutual dependence of religion and culture.
Again, Hebert Spencer says that " religion is the recognition that all things are manifestation of a power which transcends knowledge. J.G.Frazer explains that "by religion then, I understand a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of Nature and of human life. According to F.H. Bradley, "religion is rather the attempt to express the complete reality of goodness through every aspect of our being. Mathew Arnold describes "religion is ethics heightened, enkindled, lit up by feeling". James martineau is also of the view that religious beliefs are holding moral relationship with mankind. J.M.E. McTaggart says that "It seems to me that it (religion) may best be described as an emotion resting on a conviction of a harmony between ourselves and the Universat large". As far as Tiele is concerned, "religion is, in truth, that pure and reverential disposition of frame of mind which we call piety". And, according to Edward Caird, "A man's religion is the expression of his ultimate attitude to the universe, the summed-up meaning and purport of his whole consciousness of things. However, it is important to note the views of Friendrich schieier who says that "the essence of religion consists in the feeling of an absolute dependence.
It is religion alone, truly understood and truly practices, that can establish real and permanent harmony in human society and in the relation between individuals, communities and nations. Religion is concerned with the systematic discipline of the entire being of man of his body, senses, mind and heart for the direct immediate intuitive experience of the truth.
Again, it is to be noted that religion has three elements-an intellectual one; it is a process reasoning, recognizing a causative force for existence of all beings. The content of faith is generally based on the tradition of the human group is emotional element. The last is to volitional element.
According to Julian Huxley, "Religion is a way of life. It is a way of life which follows necessarily from a man's holding certain things in reverence from his feeling and believing them to be sacred.
We may accept the views of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan who says, "Religion is not a creed or a code but an insight into reality, it is a matter of life and experience and not a belief and dogma. It has for its aim the perfection of the deepest reality which is one with the deepest self". Hence were are of the view that religion is, in essence experience of or living contact with ultimate reality. It is the discipline which guides man to fight against the evil and to for truth of the spirit. It wipes of all the anxieties of human life and bring peace and happiness to him.
Significance of religion
Man stands between the visible and the invisible world. Our ordinary level of consciousness is not highest form or the sole mode of experience possible to man. To get at the inner experience we must abstract from the outer. We must get away from tumult of sense impressions, the riot of thoughts, the surgings of emotions, the throbs of desires. Also, we have problems both speculative and practical which arise not from any personal desires; they are common to all people in all ages. But these problems, now, press on us in some peculiar terms. That's why the intellect calls for their solution.
It has widely been admitted that only through faith in God, we can bring in kind the 'this wordly' and the other worldly experiences. Other than this idea of faith in God, we could not find any alternative remedy for the people who are in the perplexities of a distracted world. Bohme says, that we come into reality of our being and perceive everything in a new relation. "If we can stand still from self-thinking and self-willing and stop the wheel of imagination and the scenes."
Tfhe feeling of dependence, the idea of a higher power, and of a spiritual consciousness, is the starting point of a religion. And if we look for a solution to the problems of these days, we naturally peep into the principles of religion. It is only religion which give meaning and significance of life in this world of turmoil. Through religion, we can know the intrinsic value of life, and of our existence. A typically human need can be called the demand for meaning. Life without ultimate significance is not only flat and stale, but also it leads finally to the negation of life itself. Men lose heart when they are convinced that their existence is meaningless. A man with a fine car but no place to go can hardly be happy. Similarly, a human being with all the means of life but no point to it as a whole, will find himself is ever deepening frustration.
Thus, the necessity of religion will easily be felt. It is but an intrinsic element of human nature. Not only religion gives the meaning, significance, and value of our life but also the purposes and ends of our life. And we can also see that any religious system is capable of responding creatively to every fresh challenges which come from any quarter. And we may also hold that the necessity of religion also shows the need for a perfect life which opens the gateway of culture.
Growth of temples through the hymns of Nayanmars & Alwars
Structural temples in Tamil Nadu till the time of the Pallavas were built of bricks, timber and other perishable materials. This was a distinct featire because of the fact that stone unused in Tamil Nadu till then, was used in north India for temple structures even from the beginning of the Christian era. The taboo that persisted in building temple structures with stones, was largely due to the sentiment attached to that building material. Stone was used in the Tamil country as natukal funery stone and it would be interesting to note that the hero stones seven in Kannada, Maharastra, and other Northern areas were known by the Tamil word natukal. perhaps, it reveals an extension of this Tamilian practice in those areas.
The earliest Temple built of stone was the Vadagirisvara temple by Parameswara Varman (672-700AD) on the hill top at Thirukazhukunram. From then on a spurt in temple building activity particularly, structural temples, was witness in Tamil country largely due to the Bhakti movement heralded by the Tevaram Trios, the first two of whom Gnanasambandar and Tirunavukkarasar were the contemporaries of Mahendravarman (600-630AD) and the third of the Rajasimha pallava, (690-720AD), Pandiyan Koccadaiya Ranadira (700-730) and Seraman perumal (8th Century).
A Saivasiddhantin should have mastered all knowledge pertaining to religion, followed the system and became an adopt in the falls of carya, criya, yoga and jnana. The expression 'Saiva Siddhanta' is found in one of the inscriptions of Rajasimha found engraved in Kailasanatha temple, Kancheepuram. This confirms the view that from such practiced in the Tamil country. Rajasimha claims to be a follower of Saiva Siddhanta marga. The line in the inscription is as follows : "Kshunnari varggo vidita, baahunayas, Saiva Sidhanta margee" which means a path of dogma called Saiva Sidhanta was being followed, Further 'aghamanusaari' he was, it is declared, a knowledgeable person in Agamas and also practiced it. It is no wonder that one should find Rajasimha interested in the application of the knowledge of the Agama and the Saiva Siddhanta tenets into religious practices and temple building in his times. It is to be noted in this connection that it was only Rajhasimha who was responsible for stone structural temple while the earlier Pallavas were satisfying themselves with rock-out cave structures for worship and also monolithic type of temples.
Symbolically the concept of Saiva Siddhahta, that is the three eternal realities is presented in a temple. Pati is the installed deity. Pasu is the Saivachariyar who represented the souls on the earth and Pasam the temple structure which stood for all that could be found in the macro and micro cosmic world of existence. The temple with Sthala, tirtha and Vriksha depicted the fauna and flora of the area; in fact, it is a mini world, which is a permanent ecological set up, imbalancing of which meant destruction.
Another fact emerges, that the services of the temple servants, formed part and parcel of the temple infrastructure. They included the cleaning of the temple, gathering of water, etc. for abhisheka bathing of the deity, plucking of flowers, etc. Such duties are referred to in the Sivajnanasiddhiyar.
In later, the temple had developed considerable with the antarala, mahamandapam, nandi shrine, Bali pitha and the flag staff. The gopura on the East and West had also come up in most of the temples; gopuras, building for which Sundara Pandya had earned an indelible place in the history of temple architecture. The impact of Saiva Siddhanta at this stage became total on the temple architecture. Temples developed Prakaras five at the most. These Prakaras, by and large, were developed to depict the Pancha kosas or the five sheaths. The Prakaras were only national till then for they are also called avaranas veiled sheaths which meant that they need not be present physically. But when an opportunity arose during the Chola and later periods in the way of regal patronage to Saiva Siddhanta philosophy the sthapathis lost no time in planning out these prakaras and in them structures like mandapams, madapalli were also built. Enclosures for preparing garland, for the coillection of abhisheka materials were all erected. But behind these seemingly natural corollary of expansion to accommodate the increasing functions of the temple, there is an undercurrent of tattva background which should be perceived.
The devote by then if the is properly initiated in the mysteries of the temple lore is in a state of mind which has reached transcendental heights and is experiencing reality without the filter of conceptual thinking.
Yet another tenet of Saiva Siddhanta philosophy translated in visual form in temple architecture is the concept of eternal verity (tattva): atma-tattva, vidyatattva and siva-tattva. The atma tatva aspect is dealt the senses, seats of perception, objects of senses, etc and is related largely to the knowledge acquired. The Vidya tattva belongs to the realm of the ethenic. It is the knowledge obtained by initiation. Siva-tattva is the transcendental state when the absolute is experienced directly.
In Siva temples, these three tattvas are represented by the thousand, hundred and sixteen pillared Natarajas mandapas in the axial line of the sanctum to the outer gopuram. In Important temples like Madurai, we notice this symbolism expressed in all its ramifications. As the tattvas are motive factors, they are symbolized by the installation of the figures of Nataraja who depicts respose in motion. The Nataraja figures are installed in each of these mandapams on raised platforms and receive periodical pujas. The thousand pillared mandapams signify the body principle with thousands of bones and nerves and muscles. Also it indicates the innumerable physical attachments we develop. To indicate that atmattava is related to the varieties of the jagrat state, the floor the thousand pillared which it represents, is in five tiers and it is only on the fifth tier the platform, that Nataraja dances.
The lay out of the temple and the course of perambulation taken by the devotees symbolizes the 'om–kara' tattva. The inner chamber with only a door manifestation in sound, it the 'om'. The devotee stands in front of the sanctum or outside the antarala or ardhamandapam, circles around himself, then proceeds around the sanctum to the shrine of Chandesvara from where again he walks to the flag-mast and half encircling it prostrates and sits for sometime thinking of Siva. He then proceeds to the outer gate. One tracking his path will discover that unknowingly the devotee marks an 'om' on the floor. Thus we may hold that the influence of the philosophy of Saiva Siddhanta in temple architecture is immense and thereby Siddhanta contributes to the artistic heritage of the Tamils.
Function of religion
It has been said that the function of religion is the realization of the divine in the actual consciousness and the attainment of perfect freedom, perfect self-union, perfect boundlessness and blissfulness. We may say that there is no difference between god-realization, self-realization and the realization of moksha or nirvana.
We may claim that the function of religion is not reflected on ecstasy, but identification with the current of life. The religious man transcends the limitations imposed on him by his material nature or social conditions, and enlarges the creative purpose. Hence Dr. S. Radhakrishnan is of the view that religion is a dynamic process, a renewed effort of the creative impulse working through exceptional individuals, and seeking to uplift mankind to a new level.
Religion and Society
It is a matter of fact that we may say that cannot live apart from society and religion. Today the goal of religion is not only liberation, but it is more concerned with social welfare, social relation, social cohesion and national integration. Religion is for the betterment of human beings. Social welfare and service of humanity is the call of all religions. And hence religion must be viewed as a part of culture through society.
Religion and Culture
In the present-day world, the study of religion and culture has become a highly specialized discipline. It is to be noted that religion is closely related to culture and also religion contributes to the culture of a society, but is in turn also influenced by it. For, culture comprises of the intrinsic values accepted by the group. And also, religion is concerned with higher values. Culture is the most important means of social and religious development that man has devised so far. It is a method for greater satisfaction and efficiency of the physical, vital and mental life of man in society. And hence we may claim that culture is the consciousness of life created by religion.
Again, religion reflects both God and Man. As religion is a life to be lived, not a theory to be accepted or a belief to be adhered to, it allows scope and validity to varied approaches to the divine. There may be different revelation of the divine but they are all forms of the Supreme. True religious life must express itself in love and aim at the unity of mankind.
Also, it is to be noted that culture is a movement of human spirit. Its essence lies not in any biological unity of race or in political and economic arrangements, but in the values that create and sustain them. The political-economic structure is the framework intended to give expression to the values of a religion, for religion signifies faith in absolute values and a way of life to realize them. Religious faith gives us the passion to preserve in the way of life.
Hence we may say that religion forms an integral part of culture, always helping to keep in the background the idea of a universal power covering all humanity and shaping its destiny. This is a constant and instructed self-analysis helping man to develop a sense of tolerance and good will and correct evaluation of all the forces around him. Here, it is appropriate to note the Tillich's dictum religion as an ultimate concern is the meaning-giving substance of culture and culture is the totality of forms in which the basic concern of religion express itself.
During the period of Alwars, most of the vaishnate temples are constructed on par with the architectural style of Saiva temples. Most of the Alwars initiated the rulers on spiritualistic contributions, some while, they involved Themselves to conquest the temples.
Temple plan and its parts
The principal architectural feature of the temple are as follows. Throughout the greater part of the country, the sanctuary as a whole is known as the vimana, of which the upper and pyramidal or tapering portion is called the sikhara, meaning tower or spice. Inside the vimana is a small and generally dark chamber or cella for the reception of the divine symbol. This cella is the garbha griha, or "womb-house", and was entered by a on its inner, and usually, eastern side. In front of the doorway was a pillared hall, or mandapa, actually a pavilion for the assembly of those paying their devotions to the divine symbol in the cella. Some of the earlier temples indicate that the mandapa, was a detached building, isolated from the sanctuary, by a definite open space, as in the "Shore" temple at Mamallapuram, and originally in the Kailasanatha at Conjeeveram, both near Madras, and built about 700 A.D. A little later it became the custom to unite the two buildings, thus forming an intermediate chamber, or vestibule, and called the antarala. Leading up to, the main hall, or mandapa, is a porch or ardha-mandapa, while there may be a transept on each side of this central hall, known as the maha-mandapa. The most complete illustrations of the fully formed and co-ordinated temple structure, are the tenth century examples at Khajuraho, Central India, especially that known as the Kandariya Mahadeo. In this class of temple, each portion named above, has its separate pyramidal roof, rising in regular gradation, from the lowest over the porch (ardhamandapa), to the lofty spire over the sanctum. In some parts of the country it became the practice to enclose the temple building within a rectangular courtyard by means of a continuous range of cells, facing inwards, the whole forming a substantial containing wall, and thus ensuring seclusion. One of the first temples to combine all these attributions, and to a present a co-ordinated plan was that of the Vaikuntanath Perumal at Conjeeveram (cir. A.D. 740). Most of these early temples have a processional passage or pradakshina patha consisting of an enclosed corridor carried around the outside of the cella. (Plate LIV).
It will be seen that, although differing in other respects, there is much the same conventional system and disposition of parts in the Indian temple as in the Christian Church, with the nave corresponding tottle mandapa, the chancel to the sanctuary, the tower or spire to the sikhara, the cloisters to the rectangular range of cells, and the churchyard, or close, to the temple enclosure. In its plan there is also some resemblance to the temple of the Greeks, with its columned naos before the interior cella, and its pronaos or porch acting the same as the ardha-mandapa of the Indian type. It is not without significance that, as already described, a temple showing Hellenic influencen was actually erected, with loval modifications, at Jandial in Taxilla in the second century B.C. (Plate XXVII). It may be noted, also, that the basic intentions of the Greek and Indian temples were not dissimilar as neither was designed for congregational worship, each being a sacred monument, and an object of devotion in itself. 'dwelling place of the gods', for, in addition to the symbol of the deity within the cella, numerous niches, recesses, alcoves, and altars, were provided as part of the architectural scheme, within which were enshrined sacred images of the immoratals, so that the whole structure resolved itself into a place of assembly of the Devas, or "Shining Ones".
Temples as a Social institutions
In ancient times, the temples were the busiest part of the village and the life of the community was centred upon the routine of the temple. They become not only places of worship but also the very centre of the entire life of the village. The temple served the purpose of fortresses, treasuries, court houses, parks, fairs, exhibition sheds, hall of learning and of pleasure, all in one. In some temples, dances and music were arranged. Festivals held throughout the year provided an opportunity for the people to congregate and do communal work. Educational institutions were also conducted in the temples. In various ways, they provided themselves to be agents of relief to the poor. They played the unique role of land holders, consumers of goods and services and also of employers. Thus the temple in our country is a unique institution the like of which is not seen anywhere also in the world. In short, it is the very hub of activity around which the life of the community is built. It is the centre of cultural, social and educational activity.
Culture has been clearly explained by Dr. K. K. Pillai as follows. "Intellectual attainment through knowledge and an intellectual awareness and curiosity are fundamental elements of culture. Besides, culture has intimate relation to social habits and customs behaviour and manners. Infact, culture has a direct bearing on the way of life as well as on the outlook of life". The temple has gone a long way in providing proper social environmental and offering ample scope for self-improvement and has thus proved to be a centre of culture.
The daily routine of activities in a temple serves as a model of reference for all the people in the village to follow. Worship in a temple engender good character and self-imposed discipline. The devotee considers it necessary to take his bath and wear clean dress before going to the temple. He observes fast on certain days. By scrupulously and carefully subjecting himself to discipline, he increases his power of concentration and finds in due course suitable psychic atmosphere for uninterrupted and peaceful meditation. Thus the temple is a place where heaven and earth may be considered to meet and becomes a centre of culture surcharged with religious fervor and spiritual enlightenment.
Provision was made for mass education through discourses and discussions on themes of religious and philosophical importance in temples and maths.
Temples were also functioning as Registration and Record offices. An inscription by king Rajaraja at Puliyur refers to the establishment of charitable institutions called "Ara Pereem Salai" and to the order passed that the details of lands should be kept and preserved in the temple treasury called "Thirukaikotti". The inscription in temples furnish valuable and authoritative information the life led by people.
Temples were also centres in which activities were carried on. Thiruvaduthurai inscriptions refer to the functioning of charitable institutions like "Perunthiuvati Arachalai' and 'Arupathu Aracharlai' during the region of king Vikramachola in which food was provided to devotees, Brahmins, hermits and orphans.
Hospitals were functioning in some temples. An "Athular Salai (Hospital) with 15 beds was functioning in the name of "Veera Cholan" according Mukkudal inscription. A physician, a surgeon, two nurses and a few attendants were employed in the hospital. Sri Kundhavai Pirattiar had given donations in the shape of lands and money to Uthama Chola Asalaryam.
Temples were also functioning as employment offices by providing jobs in temples to Pandaram(treasurer), Kanakkar (accountant), Meikappalar, cooks, persons who arranged for light to burn, makers of garlands, painters, white-washers, astrologers, artisans doing metal work, potters, tailors, barbers and washmen. The posts were occupied by them with hereditary right and lands were granted to them. In olden days, temples were safe places of refuge for people at times of foreign invasion during war and at the times of flood and storm. They were also used as forts.
The religious art of Tamils antiquity and middle ages are indeed not merely eloquent expressions of the high culture and attainments of those days but also a part of their social services. The temple was the centre of village life. It was besides being a centre of culture, a feeding house, a hospital, an art gallery, a court of justice and a charity house. The temples were closely connected with the being of the people. Thus it is seen that the temples which were centres of worship, education and culture were also functioning as centres of social welfare.
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